Peculiarities of use of special terminology

CONTENT
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………….3
PECULARITIES OF USE OF SPECIAL TERMINOLOGY IN ENGLISH..….4
1. Main definitions and types of special terminology…………….……………..4
2. Features of forming specialized terminology in English…………...…………5
3. Peculiarities of use and translation special terminology……………...……..11
CONCLUSION………………………...………………………………………16
Used literature………………………………………………………………….18

INTRODUCTION
Most often, interpretation in the professional field is needed when conducting business negotiations. With the help of translations of documentaries and advertising films of specialized subjects, the process of concluding contracts is simplified. Translation of professional websites allows specialists from all over the world to communicate with each other, exchanging experience.
Currently, the problem of translation of specialized texts is relevant due to the increasing volume of translations and difficulties encountered in translation by technical translators working in various foreign companies and firms. The study of the specifics of the source text is extremely necessary, since without its consideration, an adequate translation of a number of sources is simply impossible. The quality and result of translation are determined by the characteristics of the source text, so the relationship between text and translation is one of the main problems of translation theory, which is justifiably addressed by many translation researchers dealing with its special aspects.
The relevance of the study is due to the fact that educational standards devote a large amount of time to professionally directed module and the study of specialized terminology.
The aim of this report is to consider the features of the use of special terms in the English language. To achieve this goal, it was necessary to solve the following tasks:
- to study the theoretical aspects of the use of special terminology in the English language, including to consider the types of terms and give the main definitions used in this work;
- to analyze the features of the formation of specialized terms in the English language, to identify the most common ways of formation of terms in the English language;
- to consider features of translation of specialized terms.
PECULARITIES OF USE OF SPECIAL TERMINOLOGY IN ENGLISH
1. Main definitions and types of special terminology
Term (including scientific and technical terms and terms of organizational and administrative documentation) - is a unit of a particular natural or artificial language (a word, phrase, abbreviation, symbol, combination of words and letters, symbols, a combination of words and numbers, symbols), with the result that spontaneously formed a conscious collective or special agreements special terminological value that can be expressed either in verbal form or in any formal format and fully and accurately reflects the basic, essential at this level of development of science and technology, the characteristics of the corresponding concept. A term is a word necessarily correlated with a certain unit of the corresponding logical-conceptual system in terms of content.
The same term can be included in different terminologies of a given language, which is a scientific terminological homonymy, for example:
“reaction” 1) in chemistry, 2) in physiology, 3) in politics;
- “reduction” 1) in philosophy, 2) in jurisprudence, 3) in phonetics;
- “assimilation” 1) in ethnography, 2) in phonetics.Gradually, the content of scientific knowledge begins to penetrate into the signs of our chosen language, saturate and fill them. In language, the word, the phrase is already inseparable from their meaning, and here the content of scientific knowledge becomes an element of the language of science. Scientific knowledge, which has found its expression in a word, in a term, passes into a qualitatively new stage, being included in the semantic system and structure of a particular language of science, becoming a component of the lexico-semantic system of this language.
From the point of view of morphology, the terms are divided into simple (deal, lease, tax), derivatives (liquidity, hypothecation), complex (shareholder, creditworthiness, markdown), the terms-word combinations (expiration date), abbreviations (LLC-limited liability company) [3, p. 32-34].
In depending on the number of components, the terms of the phrase can be binomial, trinomial and polynomial. With the help of the term you can clearly and briefly convey the essence and content the designated object. It is characterized by a correlation with reality a certain concept and the desire for unambiguity within one the terminology, therefore, many English terms have a constant lexical correspondences in the Russian language [3, p. 27]. For example: depositor – investor, income.
Terminology (as a set of terms) is an autonomous sector of any national language, closely related to professional activities. The terms of each branch of science, technology, production form their own systems, determined, first of all, by the conceptual connections of professional knowledge in an effort to Express these connections by linguistic means. Terminology exists and functions not in isolation, but in the environment of ordinary, commonly understood words, and almost always in any special text it is possible to distinguish ordinary words from special ones. The basis for this distinction is the correlation of terms and ordinary words with different concepts. Terms are always correlated with special concepts in contrast to common words, which are correlated with non-special concepts. Terms are formed by changing the meanings of words of the General literary language and terms borrowed from other branches of science and technology.
2. Features of forming specialized terminology in English
The most intensive replenishment of the terminological composition of the language is due to the following processes: affixation, i.e. formation of new one-word terms by adding prefixes and suffixes borrowed from Greek and Latin to root words, for example:
- «marketing + de = demarketing» - reduction of consumer demand for a scarce commodity by raising prices or reducing funds.
- Verbiage is the formation of a new basis by combining two already existing bases, usually without changing their form, for example:
gr. logos-word, concept + typos-imprint, form = logotype - specially designed, stylized abbreviated form of the company name, often in the original outline, a symbolic name; trademark, sign.
- Conversion of a word or term, with which an existing word or term forms a new term relating to another part of speech, for example: to know + how = know how (technology production) [7, p. 54].
- Direct borrowing words from Greek and Latin languages, for example: locus - geometric place points.
Also, many terms are formed by word formation, including prefixing.
a) Pre. The prefix “pre” comes from the Latin “prae”, meaning before, in front. In English, the addition of the prefix pre is used to convey the idea of advancing in time or position.
Pre - emption rights-pre-emptive rights to purchase a) down, below; b) release, disable or reject; and c) separation, distance. descent-descent, decline in) Inter.
- The prefix “inter” comes from the Latin word inter, meaning between, among. It is necessary to distinguish between “inter” and the prefix “in” added to a word beginning with the syllable ter (in words such as internal, interminable, etc). If any other prefix (e.g. external) can be substituted for “in” and no other prefix can be substituted for “inter”, then the valid prefix is in. All modern values of the inter prefix correspond exactly to its original value. Independent utility-interdependence of utility functions.
- the prefix “un” means changing the action of the verb to the opposite. ( undecided, uncover-remove).
- The prefix “re” has the value back, again, again. In some cases, the re prefix plays the role of an inseparable passive prefix (as, for example, in the words refer, revoke, revert). reorganize reentry - re-enter the value.
- “Trans” means through, outside. In some cases, the last letter “s” is discarded without changing the value. transfer – transfer.
- When we add the prefix “mis” to the root word, the letter “s” is always preserved (misunderstand).
- “ob” prefix, the most characteristic are against, to, in the direction. The letter “b” of the prefix is often assimilated, resulting in forms such as op, oc, of or even omitted altogether, as in the verb omit. objective - the purpose of opposite - opposite.
- The main meaning of “ex” are out, out, (expulsion-ejection) [8].
Suffixation in addition to prefixing ways of term formation, new terms can also be formed by suffixing ways in which term-forming suffixes are added to the right of the root word. With the help of suffixation, new terms or words can be formed. Suffixes and prefixes used in the system of English term formation are mainly borrowed from the general word-forming means of the English language. Suffixes have a broader meaning and indicate the category to which the concept belongs. Prefixes are at the beginning of the word, suffixes-at the end. The prefix is placed at the beginning of the word and changes the meaning of the root word. The most common prefixes of the English language include: a, be - co-, counter-, de-, dis-, ex-, in-, im-, out-, over-, post-, pre-, re-, sub-, super-, mega-, trans-, ultra-, under - and others: marketing - remarketing (remarketing) - demarketing (demarketing) - megamarketing (megamarketing) Suffix is placed after the root and changes the affiliation of the word to this or that part of speech. Derived nouns are formed by adding a suffix to verbs, adjectives, and other nouns. The most common suffixes are the following: - er, - or, - ant, - ent, - ion, - ment, - ture, - age, - ence, - ance, - ing, - ism, - ity, - ness, - ency, - ship, - ist, - ian, and others: Corporation, liquidation, factoring, shopping, distributor, investor (investor), poster (poster), sticker (sticker). Derived adjectives are formed by adding a suffix to verbs, nouns, and other adjectives. The most common suffixes are the following: - ive, - able, - uble, - ent, - ant, - ish, - y, - al, - ical, - ous, - ful, - less, - proof and others: friend-friendly, help - helpful) [9].
In addition to suffixing and prefixing, new terms can also be created by direct borrowings from other languages, mostly from Latin and Greek. quantum - quantity, sum bonus - premium. Formation of new terms or words with the help of word composition is among the least "problematic" ways of term formation, provided that the translator knows the meaning of all the constituent parts that make up the new term. In word-composition, two or more words or their bases are combined into one new term, which very rarely acquires an additional meaning significantly different from the simple semantic sum of its components. A new term - a compound noun or adjective - is most often formed by combining two nouns, an adjective and a noun or a verb and a noun. Combining words can occur without a connecting vowel, with a connecting vowel, or with a hyphen, for example: soru-copy, manuscript and writer-writing author= copywriter (developer, compiler of ads, advertising texts, slogans) + charter = time-charter.
Conversion in many cases, new words are formed from existing words in the language without any change in their spelling and pronunciation. This method of forming new words is called conversion. This is a characteristic phenomenon, consisting in the fact that two words relating to different parts of speech coincide in form (in sound and writing). to plan - plan a plan-plan in the practice of translation work, a prominent place is occupied by the problem of translation of neologisms, i.e. new words that appeared in the language in connection with the development of social life and the emergence of new concepts. It is obvious that such words are perceived as neologisms only until the concepts they express become familiar, after which they are firmly included in the vocabulary and are no longer perceived as new. It should be noted that neologisms, as a rule, arise on the basis of the existing linguistic tradition, using the word-forming means already available in the language. A number of English terminological phrases denoting new market concepts are borrowed by the Russian language. Such a phrase is direct marketing in English means " sales without intermediaries." In the Russian language, the English-language term direct marketing gets new meanings, one of which is "interactive marketing system", that is, "interactive marketing system". When entering the terminological field of the Russian language, the English-language term "direct marketing" expands its semantic characteristics.
Reductions may consist of one (Co - Company), two EU (European community) = EC (European community), three (DIC - Defence Industrial Complex), four (CWCD - Chemical Weapons & Civil Defence), five (MGCIR - master ground-controlled interception radar) and more components. More than five-part abbreviations are rare. Abbreviations can also be divided into graphic and lexical (according to the method of implementation in speech). Graphic abbreviations are used only in writing and are implemented in oral speech by the full form of the components they represent in the text: FA-Field Artillery. Both single-component and multi-component terms can be abbreviated. Of particular difficulty is that the meaning of the abbreviation may not coincide with the meaning of the terms in their full form. Currently, abbreviations in English are formed with particular ease, which leads to additional difficulties, which are compounded by the fact that some abbreviations have several dozen registered meanings. There are abbreviations with symmetric form and semantics in English and Russian languages, for example: SIF, CIF (eng. abbr. CIF, cif from cost - cost, insurance and freight - freight) - international trade marking of the terms of delivery and payment for sea (water) transport, when the purchase price included, in addition to the cost of the product itself, the costs of insurance and transportation to the port of destination. These terms are becoming international [6].
The most productive way of structural term formation is the syntactic way, which consists in converting ordinary free phrases into complex "word equivalents". With the help of this method, "60% -95% of the composition of various studied terminologies of European languages is described, which indicates the predominance of terminological phrases (compound terms) over one-word terms as a characteristic feature of modern terminolexics" [5]. Under the terminological phrase (TP) we understand the phrase, which is the unit of nomination in the system of this terminology, as well as the semantic and grammatical Union of two (or several) full-valued words, serving as the name of a special professional concept, for example: productive labor; natural growth. The structure of the terminological phrase indicates " the place of the concept called by it in the system of related concepts. The generic word, the nuclear component of the phrase, indicates the subgroup to which the concepts called by the phrase belong. This word stands out in the phrase by the fixity of the place, and the process of formation of combinations usually leads to the addition of new words or phrases to it" [6].
The vocabulary of the English language is in a state of constant development, and morphological methods, such as affixation (affixation is a method of word production by which new words are created by connecting word-forming affixes, i.e. prefixes and suffixes, to the basics of different parts of speech), make a "dominant contribution" [8] to the enrichment of the vocabulary of the English language at the present stage of its development. The studies carried out in relation to suffixation and prefixation in the English language show in favor of the fact of greater gravitation of languages to the way of formation of new words with the help of suffixation and less-prefixation [9]. L. Bauer cites in his study the ratio of suffixes to prefixes, which is 47.4%: 12.4% [10]. The use of modern productive morphological processes for the formation, in most cases, of nouns using suffixes is an innovation of the late XX century. Prefixes are word-forming morphemes that precede the root and change the lexical meaning of the word, but in most cases do not affect its belonging to the same lexical and grammatical class [11]. The word formed with their help also joins a certain semantic series of words, but at suffixation the categorical meaning of this word remains, and it does not pass to other part of speech, for example:untaxed –not taxed;disinflation-disinflation;surtax–additional income tax; rebate–deduction of percent; entail–Institute of patrimonial inheritance. Most of the complex words appeared on the basis of phrases, but some of them are formed by adding the root bases by analogy with the existing complex terms. A complex term is formed from the bases of terms that are among themselves in certain structural and semantic relations, similar to similar relations of linguistic formations of phrases or sentences.
Thus, the analysis of structural features of terms in the English language showed that the most productive way of structural term formation is the syntactic way
3. Peculiarities of use and translation special terminology
There are variations in the use of terms depending on the specialization grade of the discourse. The terminological density, which means, the amount of terms in a text is conditioned by the kind of discourse:
- Specialized discourse: aimed at experts (there are different specialization levels).
- Didactic discourse: aimed at education.
- Informative discourse: aimed at people without a specialized knowledge of the subject.
The amount of terms used will be very different in these discourses. The level of competence of the text users on the subject presented increases in accordance with the amount of terminologies used. In this way, the specialized communication requires the terminology to be adapted to each type of text. This type is determined on the quantity of information shared between producer and user of the text and the purpose of the text. We will not find the same number of terms in the Penal Code as in a generalist newspaper’s news item on a trialIf a term is precise, then its communicative dimension is unchanging, it means, its meaning does not depend on the context, the discourse in which it is inserted nor the sender of the message nor any other factor of a communicative event [7, p.14]. This does happen in the standard communication. Terms have to submit three conditions to be really precise:
1) Its meaning has to be previously delimited; To delimit the meaning of a term, it is necessary to enunciate a definition to establish a relation between the term and the concept. Such definition allows comparing the term with others already existing and defined in order to recognize the differences. In the standard register, words also have their definitions, but the meaning of the words can be altered in standard communication to introduce the feeling, expressivity, and creativity of the speakers. This should not happen with terms in specialized communication, since the main purpose of such communication is, generally, the transmission of objective information that cannot be altered by any feeling, expressivity or creativity. We said “generally” because there are situations where specialized communication for other purposes, in addition to the transmission of information, can be observed. Such is the case of publicity in specialized media (e.g. the advertisement of a machine published in a journal on a certain productive sector aimed at experts; the purpose of the advertisement is to persuade the receiver of the message that the machine is good enough to be bought).
2) This meaning has to be monosemic and there has not to be any synonym; A term is monosemic when it has only one meaning, representing a single concept. If a monosemic term has, in addition, no synonym, there is a univocal relation between term and concept leading to precision. This univocity is more usual among terms in specialised communication than in the standard register in which polysemy and synonymy are numerous. It may be possible that a term is monosemic in the field of a science, but has, at the same time, several meanings in other sciences and in the standard register; in this case, there is a univocal relation in such field.
The special terminologies specific to a professional activity or to certain fields like science and technique, philosophy, informatics, economy, arts have particular terms and rules to word the linguistic statement.
In the scientific and technical field, the specialists try to be very precise and in order to be clearly understood they resort ot typical formulae, bypassing the new ones whenever possible. Nevertheless all the changes in the scientific field entail modifications in the denominations system. The names for the new concepts are either borrowed or created. Therefore there is a special relation between terminology and technology, consisting in the utilitary relation between invention (the technical progress) and the denomination system.
The medical terminology is characterized by: non-ambiguity, univocality, mono-reference; most of the terms in this domain have only one meaning (appendicitis, phlebitis , acupuncture), so their definition must provide very clear information. Usually the medical terms are context free even if the context increases the accuracy of the message, for a more precise communication.
As for the exact sciences and informatics, the statement may be worded through letters, figures or other symbols, but in case of other terminologies (medicine, arts, journalism) the concepts are denominated resorting to the natural language.
In the philosophical terminology, the logical terms are the most specialized, sometimes non-verbal signs being used and „ they are useful for the precision of the argument more than for the terminological accuracy and they make a general communication beyond the limits of a certain natural language” (A.BiduVranceanu,1990,p.16). Some less specialized philosophical terms may be found in the common language as well (conclusion, certainty, consequence).
The informatics, a science that has recorded a spectacular progress in the last decade, is „invaded„ by a lot of specialized terms dificult to be decoded even by the initiated persons.
Once the calculator/computer occured in our life, the informatics penetrated all the professional fields, hence the interested persons must understand and use the specific terms of informatic techinque, especially English words: hardware, software, mouse, commander, options, windows, listing etc.
In the economical terminology more and more English words are used (marketing, factoring, off-shore companies, holding, leasing, audit …etc.), terms introduced in our language in their original form as they are to be used by the businessmen and other people in commercial communication. These terms are largely spread mainly by means of written communication (economic magazines, reviews, financial and governmental publications, companies correspondence). Examples include waiver, restraint of trade, restrictive covenant and promissory estoppel.
The socio-political terminology is well represented in the publicistic style.
Most of the socio-political terms are neological (diplomacy, delegation, independency, trade union…) the French ones prevailing. Some terms from other styles or from the common literary language were semantically changed: they are either neological terms (economic development, market economy) or old Romanian words with new meanings (chamber, underdevelopment).
Many English terms which have been lately introduced in the publicistic style still keep their foreign form (play-back, happy-end, summit, discount, horror etc.). We write the English words keeping the written form (market, consulting, meci, trening), reflecting the phonetic form (lider, ghem) or the morphological one [17].
There are several methods of attributive translation phrases: literal translation (calculus), transcription and transliteration, semantic equivalent or functional analogue, explication, combination of several translation techniques, full copying of the English-language phrase [3, p. 45-49].
The literal translation (calculus) is "in translation in parts words or phrases with the subsequent connection of parts" [2, p. 38].
Often the defining part of a term can be transferred to an adjective, it is also possible to change the order of components, and semantic connections can be transmitted using prepositions [3, p. 45]. For example: mortgage tax, acquisition price-purchase price, income statement, retail branch network.
The next way to translate terms is semantic equivalent or functional analogue. This technique involves "the use of real-life Russian words, fully or partially reflecting the meaning of the English term " [3, p. 47]. For example, for the phrase capital productivity in Russian there is a term capital return.
Explication (descriptive translation) is used if it is impossible to find an equivalent in the language in which the translation. This method is to transfer the meaning of the word using its descriptions, explanations. The phrase “market auction” can be translated from using descriptive translation as securities trading method auction's.
It is possible to combine several translation techniques at the same time:
- the use of calques and transliterations or transcription;
- transcription and descriptive translation;
- transcription, calculus and functional analogue;
- the replication, transcription and descriptive the translation [3, p. 48-49]. For example: quality control engineering.
At full copying of an English-language phrase the term is transmitted in the Latin alphabet [3, c. 49].
When translating multicomponent terms, it is necessary to set key word and internal semantic connections [3, p. 49]. For example, if to translate the term immovable property gains tax, you have to first translate the keyword tax is tax, hen gains is profit and the combination is immutable property – real estate. As a result, we receive income tax from real estate.
Thus, when translating terms, it is necessary to take into account the scope of their applications and context, as well as semantic relationships between components in terms-word-combinations.
Conclusion
Terminological requirements in science are intended to justify the use of specific terms denoting certain concepts. These include: clarity, unambiguity, approbation by practice, self-explainability, economy of expression, expressive neutrality, lack of connotation. In terms of phrases, grammatical design can be expressed:
suffixes (tailless plane, selective communication);
prepositions (system of axis, system of equations);
endings (three wheeled bicycle, the controlled system).
Therefore, usually the semantic content of terminological phrases does not allow any inaccuracies in the interpretation of terms.
Terms, being units of any concrete natural or artificial language possessing as a result of spontaneously developed or special conscious collective agreement special terminological value which can be expressed either in the verbal form, or in this or that formalized look and accurately enough and completely reflects the basic, essential at the given level of development of science and technology signs of the corresponding concept, can represent on structure various types:
1. Multicomponent terms are phrases expressing single integral concepts with different degrees of semantic decomposability. Terms-phrases are created by adding to the term denoting the generic concept, concretizing features in order to obtain specific concepts directly related to the original. Such terms actually represent the rolled-up definitions bringing this concept under more General and at the same time specifying its specific sign.
2. The term-complex word is most often a combination of two or more bases of nouns. A compound word is a term, both components of which denote objects (i.e. machines, mechanisms, devices, etc.), is translated differently, depending on the relationship between these objects.
3. One-word terms are heterogeneous in the number of word-forming components. In accordance with this basis, one-word terms constitute the following groups:
- the structure of the term includes one basis;
- the structure of the term is the basis and one or more affixes;
- the term is formed by adding the basics;
4) the term is formed by adding parts of words;
5) the formation of the term occurs by adding the basics and affixation.
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