Экологическая безопасность западной Сибири

Introduction
Western Siberia region is characterized by rather vulnerable environmental conditions. Specific natural and climatic settings combined with intensive industrial activity have a negative impact on the Siberian ecosystems. This can cause significant environmental damage in a global context. The current climatic changes transfer the geopolitical setting of Siberia. Therefore, Siberian environmental conditions should be regarded as a complex system of interrelated factors. On the one hand, this region is exposed to the extensive global development; on the other hand, the changes in the region itself cause the response of the whole community. The Siberian safety system is a key factor of sustainable development of the region. To address this issue effectively, it is essential to advance the cooperation between countries, transnational companies and research institutes.
Environmental problems in Russia
In many respects, Russia is a major net contributor to European and global environmental quality. 65% of Russia’s territory has not been affected by economic activity and huge geographical areas remain virtually undisturbed by man. Russia contains 20% of global water resources and 22% of global forests. Thus, the conservation of these immense environmental assets is a key concern. Although both the government and businesses are increasingly taking steps to protect the environment, Russia continues to face immense environmental challenges. According to Russian official sources, the environmental situation typical of densely populated urban and industrial areas (constituting 10-15% of the country’s territory) is ‘alarming’. For example: municipal water supply is unreliable in many cities, with threats of water pollution, including severe contamination by heavy metals. One-third of all water pipes and 17% of sewage pipes urgently need replacement, and waste is exceeding the capacity of sewage pipes by 60%; - systems of industrial and domestic waste handling are inadequate in Moscow and other cities. 1.8 billion tons of toxic waste have accumulated and this increases annually by 108 million tons; - industrial and vehicle emissions cause severe air pollution in many cities; - chemical and oil pollution of soil is characteristic to the Northern Caucasus, Kurgan, Irkutsk, the Cheliabinsk regions, the Volga basin and Western Siberia. The condition of soil (and land, generally) is unsatisfactory and critical in these regions due to soil erosion, decline in humus content, desertification and flooding, salination and nitrification, and pollution by pesticides, heavy metals and radionuclides; the health situation in Russia is also considered a matter of deep concern. Diseases and poisoning from heavy metals and other toxic materials are a significant factor in the decline in life expectancy, which for men is now said to be only 58 years.5 On current trends, the population in Russia is expected to decline from 140 million today, to 135 million by 2015 and 100 million by 2050;6 - the potential for energy savings in Russia is vast. For example, the potential for energy-efficiency gains is estimated at 400m toe (compared with annual natural gas production of 490m toe);7 - Oil companies in Russia spill some 20 million tonnes of oil each year (5% of total extraction).8 In comparison, the entire spillage of crude oil into Alaskan waters as a result of the Exxon Valdez spillage in 1989 would be less than a day’s spillage in the Russian countryside. 9 It is noted that Russian environmental law provides that the company which causes an oil spillage must undertake all works relating to the clean-up of an ecological (pollution) incident. Many of the above problems have a transboundary or global dimension. For example, Russia accounts for 7% of world carbon dioxide emissions for 1% of gross domestic product (GDP). 10 Other, more regional dimensions of Russian environmental issues relate to the need to reduce pollution in the Baltic, Caspian and Black Seas, which requires joint action by Russia and its neighbours. Furthermore, control of air pollution, chemicals and hazardous waste, including spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste, also require close co-operation with Russia's neighbours and other nations and stand to offer important mutual benefits.
Sustainable development in Siberia: environmental aspects
More than 250 years ago, Mikhail Lomonsov said “Russia’s power will grow with Siberia!” Since then, Siberia has indeed become key contributor to the national economy, a source of practically inexhaustible resources for the country’s development and also a “supplier” of environmental services on a global and national scale. Historically, since Soviet times, exploitation of Siberian natural resources has conformed to the principle famously voiced by the biologist Ivan Michurin: “We cannot wait for favours from nature – to take them from her, that is our task!” Development of resource potential became a state priority under the Soviet Union and the scale of “confiscation” of resources from Siberia reached colossal proportions, especially in sectors such as coal mining, oil and natural gas production and logging. During the Soviet era the principles of sustainable development had yet to be developed. So no one thought to evaluate economic development strategies in such terms, let along include calculations based on such indicators in their planning. In this article we will consider modern trends in Siberia’s economic development, their conformity to the criteria of sustainable development and how they balance with social, economic and environmental aspects of this development. The modern concept of sustainable development proposes taking into account economic, social and environmental components in ensuring the well being and further development of current and future generations. Economists divide these components into three kinds of capital – man-made, environmental and social – allow for the exchange of one kind of capital for another. For example, the proceeds from non-renewable sources of energy (e.g. oil or coal) may be invested in other forms of capital, for example education (social) or transport infrastructure (man-made). If spending of one form of capital is offset by investments in another, such development may be called sustainable (economists call this “weak sustainability”). Environmentalists often set more stringent requirements, insisting that certain natural resources should be saved from exhaustion by replacing them with other forms of capital.
Fig. 1. Economic development in the Siberian Federal District, 2000–2012 (millions of roubles at current prices). Source: RosstatEconomic components. According to the Russian State Statistics Service (Rosstat), the Siberian Federal District contributed 11 to 12 % of Russia’s GDP in the period between 2000 and 2012. In absolute terms, Siberia’s gross regional product in 2012 was around 5.1 trillion roubles (at current prices). The vast majority of this production (83%) was in one way or another connected to mining, manufacturing and other industries that consume natural resources and have an impact on the environment (fig. 1). Meanwhile, spending for environmental purposes, including current account spending and capital costs, is insignificant. Fig. 1 shows the figures for 2011: current account spending was 0.77 % of GRP and investment just 0.25 % of GRP. Such figures could mean one of two things: either the environmental situation in Siberia is so perfect it requires no additional spending, or environmental activities are underfunded, despite the fact that extractive industries dominate the region’s economy. Below is a more detailed look at the environmental aspect of sustainable development in Siberia. Production and consumption in Russia produces more than four billion tons of waste every year. The Siberian Federal District accounts for 2.9 billion tons, or more than 70 % of the national total (fig. 2). That is a vast amount of waste! The leading regional polluters in Siberia are the regions of Kemerov, Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk. It should be noted that utilization or recycling of waste is almost nonexistent, with most waste going to land-fill (including around 50 % of waste at industrial enterprises), but accurate information about the quality of this waste is extremely hard to come by. Fig. 1. Economic development in the Siberian Federal District, 2000–2012 (millions of roubles at current prices). Source: Rosstat Gross Regional Product Mining Natural gas, electricity and water Manufacturing Current spending on environmental protection Investment in conversation 103 Atmospheric pollution is one of the most serious environmental problems in Russia and the Siberian Federal District leads the country in it, producing around 6 million tons of emissions a year (fig. 3). It should be noted that the cocktail of pollutants released into the atmosphere annually includes extremely dangerous “ingredients” such sulphur and nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and other carcinogenic compounds, heavy metals and other hazardous particles that can threaten the health and even the lives of local populations. In this sense Siberia’s “leadership” signifies high risks to human health and dozens of towns and villages across the region in areas of environmental disaster.
Fig. 2. Waste from production and consumption in Russian federal districts, 2011 (millions of tons per year). Source: Rosstat
Fig. 3. Emissions of atmospheric pollution from stationary sources in Russian federal districts, 2011 (thousands of tons per year). Source: RosstaPollution from surface water discharges from industrial and other enterprises is also exceptionally high in the Siberian Federal District. Despite a decrease in the period between 2000 and 2010, Siberian enterprises still release more than two billion cubic metres of pollution into the region’s lakes and rivers every year (fig. 4). Accordingly, there is a high risk of water deterioration in Siberia. The danger lies in the fact that contaminants collect in reservoirs, where their concentration – and hence their impact on health and the environment – increases. Besides anthropogenic factors, the condition of the environment and its natural resources is increasingly being influenced by global climate change. Perhaps the most “climate vulnerable” sectors in Siberia are agriculture and forestry.
Fig. 4. Emissions of water pollution in the Siberian Federal District, 2000-2011 (millions of cubic metres per year). Source: RosstatThe drought of 2010 to 2012, which caused more than 300 billion roubles worth of damage to Russian cereal production, is a good example. Siberian agricultural producers also incurred significant damage in the form of ungathered harvests, while the public felt the impact through sharp rises in the price of bread and other grain products. In forestry, the most direct threat from climate is the loss of trees to forest fires, pests and infectious diseases. Siberia is one of the leaders in the country in terms of acreage affected by forest fires, with hundreds of thousands of hectares burning every year. In 2011, fire killed 600,000 hectares of forest (fig. 5). From the above data it can be concluded that the environmental indicators of economic development in Siberia are not sustainable. The environmental impact of production and consumption in the region is growing, but environmental spending is static at around 1% of GRP. And the situation is further complicated by the addition of increasingly visible negative effects of global climate change to the “ordinary” anthropogenic impacts on the environment and natural resources. This is not, however, reflected in current plans for Siberia’s development. It should be noted that Siberia has enormous potential for the rational use of natural resources, including renewable sources of energy. Research centres in Siberia have seen some unique developments in this sphere, including several patents for new equipment.
Fig. 5. Area of forest fires in the Siberian Federal District, 2000 to 2011 (thousands of hectares per year). Source: RosstatBut neither the technological nor the intellectual potential of the region has yet been tapped. Discussion of sustainable development has taken on a much more practical character in recent years and attention is increasingly being paid to stimulating the development of the so-called “green economy”. This model of economic development, based on the principles of sustainable development, considers the full value of natural capital and environmental services and proposes environmental sustainability, social justice and the development of local production. There are several basic elements to a “green economy”:
• renewable energy;
• environmentally friendly home building;
• environmentally friendly transport;
• water management;
• waste management;
• agricultural and forestry management.
In many of these areas neither Russia nor Siberia has anything to boast about. The main hurdle for development of a “green economy” is underdeveloped markets that offer no commercial incentive for “green” development. And that makes the active involvement of the state and society essential to the transition to a green model of sustainable development.
Environmental studies and support economic activities in regions the Western-Siberian north
The actual problem of geographical science and practice is the negative impact of economic activity on the processes taking place in the landscape sphere. The magnitude of the possible anthropogenic impact can be estimated through their comparison with the natural potential of ecosystems, taking into account their commensurability. In this regard, the regional characteristics of heat and moisture and economic indicators that reflect the socio-economic development of the region play the key role when determining the stability of natural ecosystems to technogenic loads and formation of ecological and geographical conditions of their existence. In the regions of the West Siberian North – Yamal-Nenets (YNAO) and Khanty-Mansi Autonomous districts (KHMAO), the Northern regions of the Tyumen region - economic activity is largely regulated by the location of districts in high latitudes and, as a result, by natural and climatic features typical for these territories. Natural environmental conditions that have developed over a long period of time, have an impact on the characteristics of the livelihoods of the population of districts, the development and location of social and economic facilities, as well as production indicators of economic complexes of the considered territory. The nature of the location of the infrastructure and settlements of the administrative units under consideration were formed and linked to large oil and gas fields developed since the mid-twentieth century. Thanks to these resources they are still operating nowadays. The existing and emerging oil and gas transportation systems represent a fairly developed complex of production, transportation and partial processing of this hydrocarbon raw material. Taking into account the reserves of natural resources of the territory and the peculiarities of socio-economic development of the country, the economic specialization of the region will continue in the future. In this regard, to ensure sustainable and safe development of landscape ecosystems and long-term development of production and economic potential of the region, it is necessary to have scientifically based geoecological parameters that reflect the impact of the main environmental users of the region on the environment, i.e. oil and gas production enterprises, procurement industries, oil and gas chemistry enterprises and the corresponding transport and energy infrastructure. Oil production, transportation and processing of hydrocarbon products are the main type of production and economic activity for these territories. To a certain extent, this was facilitated by the geographical location of the Northern part of the Tyumen region – Uvat, Vagai and Tobolsk, where natural and climatic features do not allow wide spread of agricultural types of development of territories. This can be justified by the fact that current share of fuel and energy resources in the total cost estimate of the volume of mining in the YNAO and KHMAO is more than 99%. The production profile of the districts, formed mainly by enterprises for the extraction of mineral fuel and the production of products of their distillation and bitumen, cannot be attributed to the number of environmentally safe ones. Despite this, in the future, the production capacity of the fuel and energy complex will increase. The implementation of innovative investment projects for the development of Yamal and adjacent territories, the development of transport and energy infrastructure, the construction of facilities for the production and processing of hydrocarbon raw materials in the West Siberian North will continue. In the context of industrial development of these territories and creation of the basis for the growth of the "green" economy, it is extremely important to take into account the quality of life of the population. These indicators are determined by the parameters of equilibrium and balanced development of natural ecosystems in existing and potential national and international projects. Therefore, the assessment of ecological and geographical conditions of nature management, so necessary for the further successful development of the territories of the West Siberian North, is relevant and timely.
Results and discussion Taking into account the results of the study of the laws of formation of the radiation regime, the processes of moisture and heat, as well as the productivity of vegetation, a quantitative assessment of the components of the maximum permissible technogenic load in the West Siberian North was carried out. The distribution of the values of the specific maximum permissible man-made loads calculated for the points (weather stations) of the studied region is reflected in the table 1.
Table 1. Values of specific maximum permissible technogenic loads of the territories of the West Siberian North, per year
a TFE – measure, tons of fuel equivalent, /km2 , per year
The calculation results show that within the investigated area, the dynamics and distribution of the total maximum permissible anthropogenic load (q) has a pronounced zoning and varies depending on the latitude - from 3200 tons of fuel equivalent/(km2 ∙year) in the North to 3900 tons of fuel equivalent/(km2 ∙year) in the South of the region. The same distribution in the considered area is subject to the values of the components of the total maximum permissible technogenic load (PDT), that is, the initial values - q1, q2 and q3. It should be noted that in accordance with the mechanism of the process of exchange of matter and energy, the maximum permissible technogenic load on surface water resources depends on the characteristics of the conditions of flow formation. In principle, it depends on the moisture content of the territory, which in turn allows assessing the natural potential of surface runoff and determine its possible use. The value of annual production of vegetation cover and the territorial distribution of this indicator is largely determined by the joint interaction of water, heat and soil resources. The distribution of maximum permissible technogenic load of phytocoenoses on the territory (q3) also has a latitudinal character, subject to the general geographical zoning. It is obvious that the reduction (regeneration) of a single natural complex has a more favorable situation in those conditions when the values of specific maximum permissible technogenic loads take the greatest values, both for surface water resources and phytocenoses. Such territories, other things being equal to the parameters of economic impact, have more diverse conditions for self-restoration of natural ecosystems. According to the results of calculations of specific maximum permissible technogenic loads for the West Siberian North (table) such areas include Taz, New Port, Tazovskoye, Surgut, Ugut, Hale-Savoy, etc., where the total indicators of their values (q2 + q3) are by 20...35% higher than the average for the region as a whole. At the same time, there are areas in the region (Yalutorovsk, Tyumen, Tobolsk, Uvat, Demyanskoye), where the total values are low. These areas and the like of them can be attributed to less resistant to various types of anthropogenic influence. Therefore, to ensure sustainable and safe development of landscape ecosystems in the economic development of such areas the scientific justification of geoecological parameters of the region, characterizing the features of the perception of anthropogenic impact on the environment is the necessary condition
Thus, the maximum permissible technogenic load is an indicator, which contributes to the solution of the problem of ecological justification of the commensurability of natural and economic potentials of natural systems. The comparison of anthropogenic impact on the ecological environment with the maximum permissible values reflecting the self-healing capabilities of ecosystems in the region is based on the energy characteristics accompanying economic activity, and at the same time allowing taking into account the natural and climatic features of specific regions of the country. For the West Siberian North, the obtained values of ecological and geographical parameters are of scientific and practical importance and can be used in the development and adjustment of territorial schemes of rational nature management, in regional and state planning and forecasting, as the indicators characterizing the stability of ecosystems to regional and local anthropogenic impacts.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM OF FOREST MANAGEMENT IN SIBERIA
It is generally known that deforestation leads to the serious environmental problems. Firstly: it has great impact on climate. Deforestation is a contributor to global warming, and is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Secondly: the water cycle is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract groundwater through their roots and release it into the atmosphere. When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer transpire this water, resulting in a much drier climate. Thirdly: deforestation is known to cause the extinction of many species. Forests support biodiversity, providing habitat for wildlife; moreover, forests foster medicinal conservation. Moreover, deforestation also affects on economy. The forest products industry is a large part of the economy in both developed and developing countries. Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agricultural, or overexploitation of wood products, typically leads to loss of long-term income and long-term biological productivity. The aim of this paper is to consider the problem of deforestation in Siberia. Nowadays Siberia’s forests suffer from severe ecological degradation. Much of this damage is caused by careless logging practices, including over logging, use of heavy equipment, overuse of herbicides, poor road-building techniques, illegal logging and low regeneration success. Excessive forest fires, acid rains, and air particulate pollution also contribute to the damage. Ecological recovery of Siberia's forests will require separation of industry from government regulators, preservation of ecologically unique areas, a ban on clear cutting in permafrost regions, and further scientific research into boreal forest ecology. Many Siberian environmental organizations are focusing their forest protection efforts on creating or expanding nature preserves and national parks. While laudable and often successful, these efforts do not address the health of the Siberian forested land that has been logged or is open for logging. The recommendations would include:
1. Set aside forest areas of unusual character or especially high biodiversity.
2. Ban clear cutting in permafrost forest lands.
3. Respect traditional forest lands of native peoples.
4. Establish greater interaction between scientific institutes and foresters. Scientific field support should assist with forest restoration.
5. Develop alternative logging practices that preserve native ecology.
6. Preserve diverse local economies which rely on traditional hunting, fishing, beekeeping, food-gathering, and recreation in addition to, or instead of, timber. Nowadays more and more people are starting to understand how it is important to save nature.
Changes in chemical composition of drilling waste water in taiga zone of Western Siberia (the Russian Federation) on the basis of thermodynamic approach
Western Siberia (the Russian Federation) is known for production of large amount of oil and gas. It results in emission of a great deal of waste water and drilling wastes into the environment that defines the relevance of research in both ecosystem conditions – sites of oil and gas industrial facilities, and processes of storage, refining, utilization, and treatment of waste water and refinery wastes. The key feature of the regional environment is its extremely high bogginess achieving 30 % or more in some areas. Besides, at present in taiga zone of Western Siberia rather a high rate of bog formation – up to 2.62 mm/year vertically and ten thousands of hectares horizontally is observed. Bogs are distinguished by elevated concentration of organic matter and some transformation products including very toxic ones, which define general conditions of bog ecosystem functions as extremely specific and unfavorable for many species of plants and animals. One might assume that waste waters and drilling wastes (taking into account their chemical composition) can be used in forest reclamation of boggy areas, that conditions the goal of the research, namely, forecast evaluation of chemical composition changes in waste waters which are accumulated in reservoirs («waste pits») in the course of drilling operations. In particular, the conditions of waste water self-purification in waste pits formed at exploration well drilling. The basic assumptions:
1) waste water and drilling wastes inflow the waste pits on a tight schedule;
2) drilling operations and infrastructure building are to be performed within a year, after which disturbed land is remediated. Usually, reclamation reduces to site surface leveling (technical stage), fertilizer treatment, and seeding (biological stage). The general purpose of reclamation is natural condition recovery. However, in case of site reclamation located in oligotrophic bogs such actions lead to development of a new, quite sustainable body, the properties of which are close to those of eutrophic bogs. One more question raised in the course of reclamation in Western Siberia consists in expedience of wetland restoration that replaces forest ecosystems rapidly. In this case industrial activity often contributes to, but not prevents, bog formation. Actually, this fact is not described in the nature protection strategy of the region.
If we assume the absence of additional water inflow in waste pit and correlation of evaporation from water surface and waste pit water, the decrease in total liquid volume of waste, drilling waste water, and precipitation is to be observed during a year (Fig. 1). In particular, in case of simulated waste pit the liquid volume decreases from 560 m3 to 490 m3 during a year due to evaporation (despite precipitations). Due to solution concentration it is possible to increase concentration of some substances (Fig. 1, Table 3). This results in changes of conditions in «water – rock» system including fall-outs of some slightly soluble compounds and, as a consequence, decrease in concentrations of soluble substances (Table 4). Additional decrease in a number of substances in waste pit water can be potentially achieved by means of its mixing with peat, mostly with high-bog one (Table 3). It does not preclude mixing with low-bog peat, but changes the technique of the substrate obtained. Taking into account higher content of uncomplexed ions of Na+ and Cl- in waste pit water after its mixing with low-bog peat (consequently – lower concentration in the substrate), it is reasonable to apply the obtained substrate for forest reclamation of disturbed boggy areas. The use of high-bog peat for sorption would presumably allow the efficient decrease of substance concentration in liquid waste, but the substrate based on it is better to be applied at the technical stage of land reclamation due to elevated concentrations in the absorption complex.
Fig. 1. Change of liquid volume in waste pit during a year (V(l)) and sums of dissolved substances in it (TDS)
Table 3. Calculated concentrations of uncomplexed ions in waste pit water, mg/dm3
with low-bog peat (based on design III); VI – concentration after waste pit water mixing with high-bog peat (based on design III)
Oil and gas production in Western Siberia has a sufficient impact on the environment that often can be estimated as regional and long-term. In most cases this impact may be decreased due to improvements in locations and reclamation of waste pits in boggy areas as well as more efficient use of natural conditions. Besides, it is possible to reduce the costs for nature protection measures without decreasing their performance. In particular, disturbed land reclamation can be performed using the substrate obtained by means of mixing drilling waste water, high-bog (mostly at the technical stage) and low-bog (for forest reclamation) peats.
Conclusion
Based on the scale of the Siberian environmental problems revealed due to the ecological risk analysis, it is possible to conclude that the contemporary environmental safety policy can hardly guarantee sustainable development of the region. The absence of systemic approach and complex ecological risk analysis impedes the development of strategies to minimize the negative impact on the environment and reduce the dependence of the Siberian projects on their economic viability. Despite increasing number of environmental protection projects, the scale of the development and production activities that is planned in the region also suggests a turn towards ecological issues. To address this issue, the complex environmental safety system which considers the negative effects of the risks not only at the stage of strategy development but also during project implementation has been developed. The risk analysis, being an integral component of the proposed system, is of great importance as it enables to identify the definite hazard sources and predict their potential damage in order to provide the sustainable development the Siberian region within the acceptable risk levels.
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