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An article is a piece of writing on a (ttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/particular) (ttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/subject) in a (ttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/newspaper) or (ttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/magazine), or on the internet. The scientific article has a standardized structure, which varies only slightly in different subjects. However, several key formatting requirements need to be met:

1. The title should be concise and indicate the contents of the article.
2. The names and affiliation of all authors are given.
3. The first part is normally an abstract; this is a one-paragraph summary of the work.
4. The content should be presented in the context of previous scientific investigations, by citation of relevant documents in the existing literature.
5. Empirical techniques, laid out in a section usually called "Materials and Methods", should be described in such a way that a subsequent scientist, with appropriate knowledge of and experience in the relevant field, should be able to repeat the observations and know whether he or she has obtained the same result.
6. Similarly, the results of the investigation, in a section usually called "Results", data should be presented in tabular or graphic form ( (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Image/en-en/), (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Chart/en-en/), (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Schematic/en-en/), (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Diagram/en-en/) or (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Drawing/en-en/)). These figures should be accompanied by a caption and referenced in the text of the article.
7. Interpretation of the meaning of the results is usually addressed in a "Discussion" or "Conclusion" section. The conclusions drawn should be based on previous literature and/or new empirical results, in such a way that any reader with knowledge of the field can follow the argument and confirm that the conclusions are sound.

8. Finally, a "References" or "Literature Cited" section lists the sources cited by the authors in the format required by the journal.

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An abstract is a brief summary of a research article, (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Thesis/en-en/), review, conference (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Proceedings/en-en/) or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject or discipline. It is often used to help the reader quickly ascertain the paper's purpose and see what important contribution is being made by the research and written piece. When used, an abstract always appears at the beginning of a manuscript or typescript, acting as the point-of-entry for any given academic paper. It is what is read first by a reader and so must be written clearly and in interesting manner so that they wish to read on. An academic abstract typically outlines four elements relevant to the completed work:

- The research focus (i.e. statement of the problem(s) /research issue(s) addressed);

- The research methods used (experimental research, case studies, questionnaires, etc.);

- The results /findings of the research;

- The main conclusions and recommendations.

It should be written in the third person and in passive tone.

The best source of example abstracts is journal articles. Read the abstract, than read the article. The best examples are where the abstract makes the article easier to read. Not everyone writes good abstracts, even in refereed journals, but the more abstracts you read, the easier it is to spot the good ones.

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A literature review is the process of evaluating the output from a literature search by producing a annotated bibliography. It is not a dead list of books or journal articles, but a complex of interrelated ideas and arguments facilitating new ideas development. A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. It is most often associated with academic-oriented literature, such as a thesis. A literature review

usually precedes a research proposal and results section. Its main goal is to situate the current study within the body of literature and to provide context for the particular reader.

A literature review must do these things

1. be organized around and related directly to the thesis or research question which is developing;
2. synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known;
3. identify areas of controversy in the literature;
4. formulate questions that need further research.

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Research methods are the ways of actioning, putting into practice. The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or deepen understanding of a topic or issue. This process takes three main forms (although, the boundaries between them may be obscure):

-  (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Exploratory%20research/en-en/), which helps to identify and define a problem or question.

-  (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Constructive%20research/en-en/), which tests theories and proposes solutions to a problem or question.

-  (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Empirical%20research/en-en/), which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence.

There are two ways to conduct research:

1. (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Primary%20research/en-en/), using primary sources, i.e., original documents and data.

2. (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Secondary%20research/en-en/), using secondary sources, i.e., a synthesis of, interpretation of, or discussions about primary sources.

There are two major research designs: qualitative research and quantitative research. Researchers choose one of these two tracks according to the nature of the research problem they want to observe and the research questions they aim to answer:

(ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Qualitative%20research/en-en/), understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. Asking a broad question and collecting word-type data that is analyzed searching for themes.

(ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Quantitative%20research/en-en/), systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. Asking a narrow question and collecting numerical data to

analyze using (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Descriptive%20statistical%20technique/en-en/) methods.

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An academic conference or symposium is a (ttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/conference) for (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Researcher/en-en/) to present and (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Discuss/en-en/) their work. Together with (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Academic%20journal/en-en/) or (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Scientific%20journal/en-en/), conferences provide an important channel for exchange of information between researchers.

Conferences are usually composed of various (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Presentation/en-en/). They tend to be short and concise, with a time span of about 10 to 30 minutes; (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Presentation/en-en/) are usually followed by a (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Discussion/en-en/). The work may be bundled in written form as (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Academic%20paper/en-en/) and (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Publish/en-en/) as the conference proceedings.

In addition to presentations, conferences also feature panel discussions, (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Round%20table%20(discussion)/en-en/) on various issues and workshops. Academic conferences fall into three categories:

1. the themed conference, small conferences organized around a particular topic;
2. the general conference, a conference with a wider focus, with organized by regional, national, or international (ttp://dictionary.sensagent.com/Learned%20society/en-en/), and held annually or on some other regular basis;
3. the professional conference, large conferences not limited to academics but with academically related issues.

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