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Choose the correct verb

1. Some kinds of fish contain / are containing high levels of dangerous metals.

2. What do you think / are you thinking of Kate’s new hairstyle? – It’s unusual, isn’t it?

3. Loud music can be really annoying. Some people don't realize / aren't realizing what a nuisance ['nju:s(ə)ns] it can be.

4. Technicians report that they have / are having difficulty installing the new computer system.

5. No wine for me! I take / I'm taking antibiotics for an ear infection.

6. Does this wallet belong / Is this wallet belonging to you?

7. This cheese is smelling / smells terrible!

8. Thanks for your e-mail. I'm hoping / hope to get back to you very soon.

9. 'What are you doing / do you do?' 'I'm a musician.'

10. We're having our house completely redecorated. It's costing / It costs a lot.

11. 'What's the answer?' 'Wait a moment, I'm thinking / think.'

Rewrite the sentence so that it means the same as the first sentence. Use present perfect or continuous.

a) I came here at 3.00 and now it's 5.00. – a) I …have been here for.. two hours.

b) I haven't seen this film before. – b) This is the first time …………… this film.

c) Mark is asleep. – c) Mark ……………………………………………. to bed.

d) I began work here in 1999. – d) I ………………………………….. since 1999.

e) Anna isn't here yet. – e) Anna ………………………………….. yet.

f) We don't know each other. – f) We …………………………………. before.

g) There isn't any food left. – g) Someone ……………………….all the food.

h) We started waiting in this queue half an hour ago! – h) We ………..for half an hour.

i) It's a long time since I was last here. – i) I ……………………..for a long time.

j) This is our seventh wedding anniversary. – j) We………………for seven years.

Identify the tenses, and then match them to the correct description

Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense.

a)

Dear Kathleen,

I (write) to tell you my news.

My school (choose) me to spend six weeks at a school in the USA. I’m very happy about it!

At the moment I (pack) things for my trip, because I (leave) next week. My mother (book) the ticket. I (wait) for this opportunity for ages, so I’m very excited.

I (finish) reading two books about the USA and I (borrow) another one from the school library. I (become) more and more nervous every day!

Well, I must go now. I’ve got a lot of things to do. I’ll write to you from the USA.

Love.

Tracy

b) Which of the present forms in the text above are used to express:

1. actions which has happened at an unstated time in the past

2. actions which started in the past and continues up to the present with emphasis on duration

3. actions happening at or around the moment of speaking

4. changing and developing situations

5. actions that we have arranged to do in the near future

Psychologists are concerned with a wide variety of problems. Some are of broad concern: what child-rearing methods produce happy and effective adults (['adult]); how can mental illnesses be prevented, and the like. Others are more specific: How can people be persuaded to give up smoking? What is the most effective method for teaching children to read? What area of the brain controls speech?

Basically, we are interested in finding out «Why people act as they do?». Any action a person takes can be explained from several different points of view.

Suppose, for example, you walk across the street. This action can be described in terms of the firing of the nerves that activate the muscles that move the legs that transport you across the street. It can also be described without reference to anything within the body; the green light is a stimulus to which you respond by crossing the street. Or your action might be explained in terms of its ultimate purpose; you plan to visit a friend, and crossing the street is one of many acts involved in carrying out the plan.

Just as there are different ways of describing any act of behaviour, there are also different approaches to psychology. The analysis of psychological phenomena can be approached from several viewpoints. One approach to the study of human beings attempts to relate their actions to events taking place inside the body, particularly within the brain and the nervous system. This approach specifies the neurobiological processes that underlie behaviour and mental events.

The view that behaviour should be the sole subject-matter of psychology was first advanced by the American psychologist John B.Watson in the early 1900s. He believed that, although man may be at times an active agent in his own development and behaviour, he is still basically what his environment makes him. Therefore, the basic problem is to find out how man behaves or responds as a result of changes or improvements in the environment or stimuli. This view focuses on the observable behaviours of man; that is, those factors that influence him in his environment and his reactions to these forces. This approach is often referred to as stimulus-response or S-R psychology. Perhaps the spirit of behaviourism is best seen in Watson's belief that he could take any healthy infant at random (наугад) and, given his own specified world to bring him up in, bring him up to be anything he wished - doctor, prince, lawyer, criminal and so forth.

Another approach to the study of man is psychoanalysis, founded by Sigmund Freud. Freud concluded that personality and our degrees of mental health depend on the actions of three major forces: the id - our unconscious instincts, the ego - our conscious self or intellect - and superego, the conditional reflexes ['ri:fleksiz] of social rules and internalized values. The ego, or self, is often under strain to withstand the pleasure forces from the id, pressured (оказывать давление) by the reality forces of the environment and the moral forces of our upbringing (superego). The ego and the superego are the mere tips of the id. It is what is underneath that really counts. For Feudists what is hidden is more important and real than

what we feel and do.

The humanistic school view is that man becomes what he makes of himself by his own actions and thoughts. It is concerned with the topics having little place in existing theories and systems: e.g. love, creativity, self-actualization, higher values, humour, affection, courage and so on. These are exactly characteristics that describe our human nature. Humanists believe that man is born basically good, and that conscious forces are more important than unconscious forces.

Russian psychology was inseparably linked with the development of research into psycho-physiology in the works of I. Pavlov, V. Bekhterev, L. Orbeli and others. In refuting the idealistic and mechanistic influences, Russian scientists asserted in psychology the Marxist teaching on activity and its socio-historical foundation, the ideas of Lenin's theory of reflection, The theoretical and experimental study of the basic problems of psychology was carried out by A. Luria, A. Leontyev, B. Teplov, S. Rubinstein and others.

Present-day psychology is a complex and differentiated research system extending throughout general, social, developmental, pedagogical, child, medical, engineering psychology.

Notes:

John B. Watson (1878-1958) - the founder of radical behaviourism.

Signiund Freud [sigmund froid] (1856-1939) - the founder of psychoanalysis.

1900s— nineteen hundreds

the sole subject-matter of psychology – единственный предмет изучения психологии

WORDS TO BE REMEMBERED

assert v. утверждать

affect v. — оказывать влияние, воздействовать

adult n. — взрослый

apparent adj. — явный, очевидный

approach – подход

attempt n. - попыткa

advance v. – выдвигать (теорию)

concern v. – иметь отношение

be concerned with – интересоваться (чем-либо)

conclude v. – делать вывод

contain v. – содержать, вмещать

conscious adj. -сознательный

creativity n. - творчество

create v. – творить, создавать

disorder n. - болезнь

environment n. – окружающая среда

exist v. - существовать

to be engaged in – заниматься (чем-либо)

extend v. - распространять, простираться

hide (hid, hidden) v. - прятать

inseparably adv. - неразрывно, неотъемлемо

involve v. - включать

introduce v. - вводить

improve v. - улучшать

in terms of – в плане, с точки зрения

insist v. - настаивать

link v. - связывать

perceive v. - воспринимать

purely adv. – чисто, только

prevent v. - предотвращать

purpose n. - цель

respond v. - отвечать

refute v. - опровергать

relate v. - связывать

refer to -ссылаться (нa что-либо, на кoгo-либо)

specify v. - определять, устанавливать, обусловливать

ultimate adj. - конечный

underlie (underlay, n,nderlain) v. – лежать в основе

Ex. 1. Find English equivalents in the text:

Психологи занимаются; широкий круг проблем; предотвратить заболевание; и тому подобное; в основном; объяснять с разных точек зрения; в плане конечной цели; осуществить план; лежать в основе; предмет психологии; выдвинуть точку зрения; в результате изменений; влиять на что-либо; другой подход к изучению; зависеть от действия основных сил; противостоять силам удовольствия; психологи полагают; быть неразрывно связанным с чем-либо; ученые утверждают.

Ex. 2. Match the words with the opposite meaning.

a) include, adult, essential, produce, hide, birth, refute, conscious, fulfill, inside, improve.

b) damage, secondary, neglect, support, destroy, unconscious, exclude, exhibit, infant, death, outside.

Ex. 3. Match the words with a similar meaning.

a) evident, arrive, try, move, final, aware, stretch, conceal, include, connect, sense, aim, reply, disprove

b) advance, attempt, perceive, link, involve, hide, extend, approach, apparent, conscious, purpose, respond, refute, ultimate

John Watson and Behaviorism

Many regard John B. Watson as the founder of behaviorism, a field of psychology that concentrates on observable, measurable behaviors and not on mental processes. In 1901, Watson began to investigate the learning process in the white rat. By the end of 1902 he knew more about the white rat than anyone else in the United States. Also about this time, Watson first began to develop a feeling for behaviorism: “If you could understand rats without the use of introspection, could you not understand people the same way?”

Watson (1913) championed behaviorism as a new school of psychology.

Watson was not the first behaviorist, but he systematized the approach, popularized it, and stated its goals and principles (Watson, 1919, 1925).

The basic principles of behaviorism are:

1. Psychology is a purely experimental branch of natural science.

2. The theoretical goal of psychology is the prediction and control of behavior, to discover the fundamental principles of learning.

3. Consciousness should be rejected from scientific psychology.

A fundamental question of behaviorism is: How does the environment shape behavior (how behavior is acquired and modified in response to environmental influences)?

The behaviorists attempt to relate overt behaviors (responses) to observable events in the environment (stimuli). Because the behaviorists investigated stimulus-response relationships, the behavioral approach is often referred to as stimulus-response (S-R) psychology.

Inspired by Watson, many researchers began to study animal behavior, especially animal learning.

Many psychologists optimistically expected to discover simple, basic laws of behavior, more or less the same from one species to another and from one situation to another.

Just as physicists could study gravity ['grævɪtɪ] (сила тяжести) by dropping any object in any location, many psychologists in the mid-1900s thought they could learn all about behavior by studying rats in mazes (researchers observed hungry rats working hard to get to the goal box with food in it).

One highly influential psychologist, Clark Hull, wrote, “One of the problems of modern psychology is the finding of an adequate explanation of the phenomena of maze learning” (1932).

Another wrote, “I believe that everything important in psychology can be investigated through the experimental and theoretical analysis of the factors that determine rat behavior in a maze”(Tolman, 1938).

As research progressed [prə'grest], however, psychologists found that even the behavior of a rat in a maze was more complicated than they had expected, and such research declined in popularity.

Just as psychologists of the 1920s abandoned the structuralist approach to the mind, later psychologists abandoned the hope that studying rats in mazes would uncover universal principles of behavior.

Psychologists continue to study animal learning, but the methods have changed.

The behaviorist approach is still alive and well today but it no longer dominates experimental

psychology the way it once did.

Psychologists demonstrated the possibility of research on cognition (thought and knowledge) and other topics that behaviorists had avoided.

Answer the questions:

What are the basic principles of behaviorism?

Why did John Watson object to the study of the “mind” or “conscious experience”?

What was the main idea underlying behaviorism?

Why is the behavioral approach often referred to as stimulus-response (S-R) psychology?

How did behaviorists explore stimulus-response relationships?

What laws did behaviorists expect to discover by studying rats in mazes?

EX.1 Determine if the statements are true or false.

1. Watson proposed that psychology should be a science of mental life.

2. Behaviorists argue that behaviors are shaped by the environment.

3. According to Watson, psychology should be the science of measurable behavior, and psychology’s goal should be to understand the relation between environmental stimuli and the resulting responses.

4. Watson believed that psychology should focus on studying observable behaviors that could be measured and verified.

Ex. 2 Fill in the gaps with the following words:

acquire, occurs, refers, define

In the everyday sense, learning often ________ (1) to formal methods of acquiring new knowledge or skills, such as learning in the classroom or learning to play the guitar.

In psychology, however, the topic of learning is much broader.

Psychologists formally __________ (2) learning as a process that produces a change in behavior or knowledge as a result of an individual’s experience.

As the result of experience, you ___________ (3) new behaviors or modify old behaviors so as to better cope with your surroundings.

In this broad sense of the word, learning __________ (4) in every setting, not just in classrooms.

Ex. 3 Fill in the gaps with the following phrases:

environmental events,

laboratory situations,

a particular behavior,

the general principles,

stimulus-response psychology

Psychologists have often studied learning by observing and recording the learning experiences of animals in carefully controlled _______ (1).

Using animal subjects, researchers can precisely control the conditions under which __________ (2) is learned. The goal of much of this research has been to identify _______ (3) of learning that apply across a wide range of species, including humans.

Watson found support for his position in Russian objective psychology and eventually made classical conditioning the cornerstone of his ______ (4).

For Watson, the goal of psychology is to predict and control behavior by determining how behavior is related to ____ (5).